More than 150 years after the end of slavery in the United States, people of African descent are said to still suffer from its physical and psychological aftereffects.
BY AHMED KOUAOU
Drawing on advances in epigenetics—which have demonstrated the transgenerational transmission of psychological trauma—an increasing number of voices are arguing that certain conditions experienced by people of African descent, particularly in the United States, are a legacy of their enslaved ancestors.
Aimé Charles-Nicolas organized one of the first French-language conferences on the subject in 2016 in Martinique. This professor emeritus of psychiatry and addiction medicine has also written a book on the same topic, Slavery: What Impact Does It Have on People’s Psychology?
Having previously worked on psychological trauma, he says he has often wondered about the lasting effects that slavery might have on Black communities today. His curiosity was fueled by several books he had read, including one on the persistence of psychological trauma among the descendants of Holocaust survivors, a topic that has been the subject of American studies in particular.
«When epigenetics demonstrated that psychological trauma is transmitted across generations, when it was shown that there is a chemical modification in DNA directly linked to psychological trauma, I realized that there is an intergenerational transmission of the psychological trauma of slavery,» says the editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Medical-Psychological Annals.
«Research in epigenetics over the past few years has shown that, beyond the DNA sequence—the genetic code— there are chemical modifications that can cause a gene to function with greater or lesser intensity,» explains Ariane Giacobino, a medical geneticist at the Geneva University Hospitals.
«These changes in intensity,» she continues, “are linked not only directly to genetics, but also to environmental changes. And it was by measuring these environmental changes in people who were or were not exposed to different types of trauma that we realized their genes functioned differently and that this difference in function led to symptoms or diseases.”
What is epigenetics?
While genetics focuses on the study of genes, epigenetics—its relatively young sister discipline—focuses on the effects of the environment, in its broadest sense, on gene expression. In short, it encompasses all the mechanisms that regulate the genes in our genetic makeup.
A gene is a segment of DNA responsible for the expression and transmission of hereditary traits. A gene may remain silent and not be expressed, depending on epigenetic regulation. This explains why the information carried by one gene may be read, while that carried by another may remain silent.
«Genes can undergo changes—mutations—that give rise to diseases, which are always passed down through generations. These are the hereditary traits that are encoded in this way. Epigenetics refers to changes that occur on top of the genome and that, much like a dimmer switch, alter not the DNA sequence itself, but the way the gene functions,» explains Dr. Giacobino.
She likes to illustrate this with the example of a musical score: «The score is like the genetic code, and the way the score is played—the intensity of the music, the way the orchestra interprets it—all of that is epigenetics.».
The aftermath of the Holocaust, the war, the famine…
Research, which has focused on both humans and animals, has clearly shown that «these epigenetic changes can span several generations,» notes Dr. Giacobino, adding that this is «the exception rather than the rule.» «Usually, there is a »reset’ that occurs between generations, but we’ve realized that this reset can be problematic and that excessively strong epigenetic marks can be passed down through generations.”
This epigenetic transmission of trauma has been demonstrated «among Holocaust survivors, people who survived the war, the famine in the Netherlands at the end of World War II, etc. There are now several hundred studies showing that this technique can be used to identify epigenetic markers.»
It’s as if the person who carries this [epigenetic] mark has a vulnerability—something about them that makes them more susceptible to diseases, the development of psychiatric disorders, and so on. It is, after all, a mark that causes harm on an individual level.
Ariane Giacobino points out, however, that to her knowledge, there is no study that has focused exclusively on the transmission of the stigmas of slavery. Such a study would require collecting DNA not only from the descendants of slaves but also from the slaves themselves—by exhuming their bodies—and comparing it with that of white populations living in the same area. In other words, it would be necessary to trace the lineage back approximately 15 generations—something that has not yet been done.
«It’s true that this has been demonstrated in cases of physical abuse; it’s true for sexual abuse; it’s true for starvation; and it’s true for harassment. All of these have been the subject of truly robust scientific studies,» argues the author of Can We Break Free from Our Genes? Epigenetics.
«All of this has been demonstrated outside the context of slavery, which is why we can extrapolate from it,» because all of this suffering was part of the daily reality of slaves, Ms. Giacobino explains. «It’s the convergence of all these studies that leads me to believe there must be something» related to the enslavement of Black people, «but neither I nor other scientists have ever had the means to test this.».
Epigenetic marks: Is evidence needed?
Since slaves endured all this abuse for at least four centuries, it is reasonable to assume that the torture and other humiliations they suffered may have had an epigenetic impact on their descendants.
But, the geneticist qualifies, «When it comes to slavery, it would be complicated to disentangle what is linked to intergenerational transmission from what may be linked to current living conditions—the fact that people are victims of racism, live in difficult socioeconomic conditions—and that this, may be aggravating factors or even the very causes of epigenetic marks.».
These reservations do not unduly concern other experts on the subject, including the American Joy DeGruy, who has theorized what she calls Post-Traumatic Slave Syndrome.
His theory suggests that centuries of slavery, followed by systemic racism and oppression, have given rise to multigenerational behaviors—some of which have been positive and reflect resilience, while others have been harmful and destructive.
Although she agrees that epigenetic markers are indeed present in traumatized individuals of African American descent, Dr. Giacobino notes that the American psychologist «was unable to establish a link to slavery,» because that would have required tracing the family tree back several generations, which was not done.
Never mind—Professor Emeritus Charles-Nicolas points out that «psychiatrists have long documented and proven the transgenerational transmission of trauma.» “For people who experience symptoms of anxiety—whether generalized anxiety or phobic anxiety—we often find, using psychoanalytic methods, a very old trauma that, for example, affected the great-grandmother and was passed down to the mother and father.”.
What epigenetics proves is that there are certain biological markers—evidence, so to speak—but we don’t really need that evidence. I know that this transmission occurs based on clinical, psychiatric, and psychological observations.
Humiliation and a Sense of Inferiority as a Legacy
The psychiatrist sees many of the lingering effects of slavery. At a time when there is talk of a revolt among Black communities, he notes that «within the privacy of families, fear truly reigned—fear for the children.» That is why—and this is a psychological consequence of slavery—Black children are taught to submit to white police officers. They are taught to keep their hands up, not to move, to answer politely, and so on. They are taught to be submissive.”
«In post-slavery Black communities, Black families tend to raise their children strictly, and this is directly linked to slavery. Because on the plantation, you weren’t supposed to look the master in the eye—you had to keep your head down.»
«Education has been more like training,» he asserts, pointing out that, in doing so, Black parents have neglected the emotional aspect of a child’s development, which is essential to the child’s well-being.
Mr. Charles-Nicolas believes that «the marginalization [of Black people] began with slavery and continued with the Jim Crow laws,» referring to the segregationist legislation enacted in the United States between 1876 and 1965. «That period was tragic. Black people were told: »You are no longer officially slaves, but in reality you are. You are set apart; you are given separate restrooms, separate seats on the bus, separate restaurants,» and so on.»
There is this humiliation that lies at the very heart of the system of slavery and that has been passed down through the generations. Today, there is a revolt because people are becoming aware of this recurring humiliation, which has ultimately permeated the psyche of Black people and has also given rise to American white supremacy.
The professor emeritus also believes that the lack of solidarity and, at times, the internal conflicts within certain Black communities are a legacy of the slave trade.
«There was a conflict of loyalty during the era of slavery,» he recalls, “because it was Black people who whipped the runaway slaves who had tried to escape and had been caught by dogs. They were whipped; on the second attempt, their hamstrings were cut. The Black person who strikes and cuts the hamstrings of his fellow Black person feels very uncomfortable. All these acts of cruelty, these hangings, were always carried out in public; the other slaves were forced to watch in order to intimidate them.”
A former professor of psychology at the State University of Haiti (UEH), Judite Blanc is currently pursuing her research and teaching at New York University in the field of public health. To the string of traumas listed by the psychiatrist, she adds others, including that of Black identity.
The psychologist attributes the identity crisis experienced by people of African descent—both in her home country and in the United States—to the inhumane conditions in which their ancestors lived. This gives rise to «self-destructive behavior toward ourselves and mistrust among Haitians. […] We struggle to think of ourselves as a collective; we tear each other apart.».
She also points out the phenomenon of hypersensitivity among Haitians and African Americans. «After four centuries of exposure to a toxic environment, aggression, racism, constant harassment, and the destruction of the family, there is an impact on the brain,» she says.
«Even though slavery has been abolished, colonial and racist structures persist not only in Haiti but also in the United States,» notes Ms. Blanc.
What is happening in Haiti and in communities of African descent in the United States—poverty and disparities in health and education—is a direct consequence of exposure to the historical traumas of slavery and colonization.
High Blood Pressure, Diabetes, and «Even Worse» for Women
Beyond the psychological trauma, there are the physical consequences, which are just as indelible and visible among Black communities, particularly in the United States.
As part of her research conducted in the United States, Judite Blanc states that she has observed that «in terms of cardiovascular health, people of African descent are at much greater risk. They begin to develop high blood pressure very early, in their thirties and forties. They suffer from many cardiovascular and metabolic conditions, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes, as well as some types of cancer.».
The researcher says she also found that, «compared to whites and other ethnic groups, people of African descent are at much higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s.» Furthermore, «they live shorter lives than white people—on average, six years shorter—especially women.».
«At the intersection of gender, class, and race,» women of African descent are in «a worse situation» and experience «unique stress.» They are «at greater risk of dying after childbirth, giving birth to premature babies, and dying from breast cancer,» the researcher notes.
Ailments and Statistics
According to a study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(New window)
, which monitor public health in the United States, life expectancy for Black Americans (75.6 years) is four years shorter than that of White Americans (79 years).Although the study notes a 25 % decrease in their mortality rate between 1999 and 2015, the study highlights that African Americans aged 18 to 49 are twice as likely to die from heart disease as whites. Furthermore, Black Americans aged 35 to 64 are 50 % more likely to have high blood pressure than White Americans.
Other studies have shown that African Americans are at higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease due to the stress, poverty, and racism they experience. A study from the University of Wisconsin reveals that, in terms of brain function, Black Americans lose about 4 years of their lives, compared to 1.5 years for their white counterparts.
Health inequalities in the United States have been exposed by the coronavirus pandemic. The infection rate was three times higher—and the mortality rate, six times higher—in certain predominantly Black communities, according to two teachers(New window)
from the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. The death of George Floyd at the hands of police officers, they write, is a stark reminder of a reality we know all too well: racism is a public health crisis.
Between Self-Repair and Financial Compensation
How can one cope with such an unwanted and burdensome legacy? Psychiatrist Aimé Charles-Nicolas does not believe one should wallow in resentment and advocates for self-healing.
To achieve this, people of African descent should «work on themselves so that they can shake off this feeling of inferiority and identify with images of Black people» who have succeeded in life. «There is also the kind of upbringing that parents should be able to provide their children—one that is less coercive, more affectionate, and more focused on self-esteem,» advises the psychiatrist.
While he agrees that Black Americans are right to demand [financial] reparations, he warns that ’we must not wait for white supremacists to come to their knees and ask for forgiveness—otherwise, we’ll be waiting a long time. We must take matters into our own hands.«.
Mr. Charles-Nicolas is convinced that public acknowledgment of the harm inflicted on slaves and their descendants, as well as protests denouncing racism around the world, «have an impact on the psychological healing of Black people.».
We must heal ourselves by becoming aware of how we have internalized the feelings of inferiority we have endured for so long. We need to find something that gives us a sense of pride. We also need to reconnect with our community.
Geneticist Ariane Giacobino, for her part, points out that trauma passed down from one generation to the next is reversible. In other words, it can be remedied—or at least its intensity can be reduced—through psychological and social interventions.
In addition, «there are epigenetic therapies currently being studied» that have attracted the interest of the pharmaceutical industry in an effort to find «drugs that can reverse these marks.» However, she points out, «for now, these therapies are only available for certain types of cancer.».
«No one wants to spend their life feeling resentment, struggle, and stress,» but beyond self-healing, «efforts must come from the other side as well,» because there is «oppression that continues, subtly,» emphasizes psychologist Judite Blanc.
«How can you expect these young Americans not to feel resentful when they’re at the bottom of the ladder and [face] microaggressions?» she asks, emphasizing «the stress faced by minorities.» «There also needs to be systemic change, because the system is still one designed to benefit white people.»
According to the researcher, «all Black people, particularly communities descended from enslaved people, should come together to demand financial reparations.» It is time to «send a strong message to the world. People of African descent have never received reparations.».
Given that there is a global outcry and a widespread movement to denounce anti-Black racism, my position is this: I am not interested in participating in these demonstrations if this movement does not address the issue of reparations for slavery.
Although epigenetic transmission has not been the subject of a specific study that would have demonstrated the existence of such marks, Ariane Giacobino argues that «recognition of suffering should not be based on a biological marker, but on testimony of suffering.».
The geneticist believes that what psychiatrists say they observe clinically «should be sufficient» and that any compensation «should be discussed based on the individuals» suffering.”.
